Major religious groups in world 

History of religious categories

In world cultures, there have traditionally been many different groupings of religious belief. In Indian culture, different religious philosophies were traditionally respected as academic differences in pursuit of the same truth. In Islam, the Quran mentions three different categories: Muslims, the People of the Book, and idol worshipers. Initially, Christians had a simple dichotomy of world beliefs: Christian civility versus foreign heresy or barbarity. In the 18th century, "heresy" was clarified to mean Judaism and Islam;^{[citation needed]} along with paganism, this created a fourfold classification which spawned such works as John Toland's Nazarenus, or Jewish, Gentile, and Mahometan Christianity, which represented the three Abrahamic religions as different "nations" or sects within religion itself, the "true monotheism."

Daniel Defoe described the original definition as follows: "Religion is properly the Worship given to God, but 'tis also applied to the Worship of Idols and false Deities." At the turn of the 19th century, in between 1780 and 1810, the language dramatically changed: instead of "religion" being synonymous with spirituality, authors began using the plural, "religions", to refer to both Christianity and other forms of worship. Therefore, Hannah Adams's early encyclopedia, for example, had its name changed from An Alphabetical Compendium of the Various Sects... to A Dictionary of All Religions and Religious Denominations.

In 1838, the four-way division of Christianity, Judaism, Mahommedanism (archaic terminology for Islam) and Paganism was multiplied considerably by Josiah Conder's Analytical and Comparative View of All Religions Now Extant among Mankind. Conder's work still adhered to the four-way classification, but in his eye for detail he puts together much historical work to create something resembling our modern Western image: he includes Druze, Yezidis, Mandeans, and Elamites^{[clarification needed]} under a list of possibly monotheistic groups, and under the final category, of "polytheism and pantheism", he listed Zoroastrianism, "Vedas, Puranas, Tantras, Reformed sects" of India as well as "Brahminical idolatry", Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism, Lamaism, "religion of China and Japan", and "illiterate superstitions" as others.

The modern meaning of the phrase "world religion", putting non-Christians at the same level as Christians, began with the 1893 Parliament of the World's Religions in Chicago. The Parliament spurred the creation of a dozen privately funded lectures with the intent of informing people of the diversity of religious experience: these lectures funded researchers such as William James, D. T. Suzuki, and Alan Watts, who greatly influenced the public conception of world religions.

In the latter half of the 20th century, the category of "world religion" fell into serious question, especially for drawing parallels between vastly different cultures, and thereby creating an arbitrary separation between the religious and the secular.Even history professors have now taken note of these complications and advise against teaching "world religions" in schools. Others see the shaping of religions in the context of the nation-state as the "invention of traditions".
Read more: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major_religious_groups

Social Security in India

What is Social Security?

• any of the measures established by legislation to maintain individual or family income or to provide income when some or all sources of income are disrupted or terminated or when exceptionally heavy expenditures have to be incurred (e.g., in bringing up children or paying for health care)
• social security may provide cash benefits to persons faced with sickness and disability, unemployment, crop failure, loss of the marital partner, maternity, responsibility for the care of young children, or retirement from work
• Social security benefits may be provided in cash or kind for medical need, rehabilitation, domestic help during illness at home, legal aid, or funeral expenses
• It acts as a facilitator – it helps people to plan their own future through insurance and assistance.

History of Social security

• Germany was the first country to introduce Social security scheme (1883)
• each member of a particular trade (blacksmiths, painters, weavers etc) was required to contribute at regular intervals;
• Money from this fund was used for food,lodging, hospital and feneral expenses of aged and disabled members.
• In USA, Social Security Act came into existence in 1935. (years not important, this is only fodder material for Essay.)

Social Security in India

• India has always had a Joint Family system that took care of the social security needs.
• However with rise of migration, urbanization, nuclear families and demographic changes, Joint family system has declined. Hence we need a formal system of social security.

Read more: http://mrunal.org/2012/07/economy-social-security-epfo.html#1

World Health Organization

The World Health Organization (WHO /huː/) is a specialized agency of the United Nations that is concerned with international public health. It was established on 7 April 1948, headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland. The WHO is a member of the United Nations Development Group. Its predecessor, the Health Organization, was an agency of the League of Nations.

The constitution of the World Health Organization had been signed by 61 countries on 22 July 1946, with the first meeting of the World Health Assembly finishing on 24 July 1948. It incorporated the Office International d'Hygiène Publique and the League of Nations Health Organization. Since its creation, it has played a leading role in theeradication of smallpox. Its current priorities include communicable diseases, in particular HIV/AIDS, Ebola, malaria and tuberculosis; the mitigation of the effects of non-communicable diseases; sexual and reproductive health, development, and aging; nutrition, food security and healthy eating; occupational health; substance abuse; and driving the development of reporting, publications, and networking.
Read more : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Health_Organization

NATIONAL URBAN HEALTH MISSION (NEW SCHEME)

NUHM

• 

NATIONAL URBAN HEALTH MISSION (NEW SCHEME)

The National Urban Health Mission (NUHM) as a sub-mission of National Health Mission (NHM) has been approved by the Cabinet on 1st May 2013.

NUHM envisages to meet health care needs of the urban population with the focus on urban poor, by making available to them essential primary health care services and reducing their out of pocket expenses for treatment. This will be achieved by strengthening the existing health care service delivery system, targeting the people living in slums and converging with various schemes relating to wider determinants of health like drinking water, sanitation, school education, etc. implemented by the Ministries of Urban Development, Housing & Urban Poverty Alleviation, Human Resource Development and Women & Child Development.

NUHM would endeavour to achieve its goal through:-

i) Need based city specific urban health care system to meet the diverse health care needs of the urban poor and other vulnerable sections.

ii) Institutional mechanism and management systems to meet the health-related challenges of a rapidly growing urban population.

iii) Partnership with community and local bodies for a more proactive involvement in planning, implementation, and monitoring of health activities.

iv) Availability of resources for providing essential primary health care to urban poor.

v) Partnerships with NGOs, for profit and not for profit health service providers and other stakeholders.

NUHM would cover all State capitals, district headquarters and cities/towns with a population of more than 50000. It would primarily focus on slum dwellers and other marginalized groups like rickshaw pullers, street vendors, railway and bus station coolies, homeless people, street children, construction site workers.

The centre-state funding pattern will be 75:25 for all the States except North-Eastern states including Sikkim and other special category states of Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand, for whom the centre-state funding pattern will be 90:10.The Programme Implementation Plans (PIPs) sent by the by the states are apprised and approved by the Ministry.

Read more: http://nrhm.gov.in/nhm/nuhm.html

National Rural Health Mission

The National Rural Health Mission (NRHM) is an initiative undertaken by the government of India to address the health needs of under-served rural areas. Launched in April 2005 by Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh, the NRHM was initially tasked with addressing the health needs of 18 states that had been identified as having weak public health indicators. The Union Cabinet headed by Dr. Anbumani Ramadoss vide its decision dated 1 May 2013, has approved the launch of National Urban Health Mission (NUHM) as a Sub-mission of an overarching National Health Mission (NHM), with National Rural Health mission (NRHM) being the other Sub-mission of National Health Mission.

Under the NRHM, the Empowered Action Group (EAG) States as well as North Eastern States, Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh have been given special focus. The thrust of the mission is on establishing a fully functional, community owned, decentralized health delivery system with inter-sectoral convergence at all levels, to ensure simultaneous action on a wide range of determinants of health such as water, sanitation, education, nutrition, social and gender equality. Institutional integration within the fragmented health sector was expected to provide a focus on outcomes, measured against Indian Public Health Standards for all health facilities.

As per the 12th Plan document of the Planning Commission, the flagship programme of NRHM will be strengthened under the umbrella of National Health Mission. The focus on covering rural areas and rural population will continue along with up scaling of NRHM to include non-communicable diseases and expanding health coverage to urban areas. Accordingly, the Union Cabinet, in May 2013, has approved the launch of National Urban Health Mission (NUHM) as a sub-mission of an overarching National Health Mission (NHM), with National Rural Health Mission (NRHM) being the other sub-mission of the National Health Mission. After FIR in September 2015, CBI to question former Uttar Pradesh CM Mayawati to unearth the scam of ₹100 billion (US$1.5 billion).

Initiatives

Some of the major initiatives under National Health Mission (NHM) are as follows:

Accredited Social Health Activists

Community Health volunteers called Accredited Social Health Activists (ASHAs) have been engaged under the mission for establishing a link between the community and the health system. ASHA is the first port of call for any health related demands of deprived sections of the population, especially women and children, who find it difficult to access health services in rural areas. ASHA Programme is expanding across States and has particularly been successful in bringing people back to Public Health System and has increased the utilization of outpatient services, diagnostic facilities, institutional deliveries and inpatient care.

Rogi Kalyan Samiti (Patient Welfare Committee) / Hospital Management Society

The Rogi Kalyan Samiti (Patient Welfare Committee) / Hospital Management Society is a management structure that acts as a group of trustees for the hospitals to manage the affairs of the hospital. Financial assistance is provided to these Committees through untied fund to undertake activities for patient welfare.

Untied Grants to Sub-Centres

Untied Grants to Sub-Centers have been used to fund grass-root improvements in health care. Some examples include:

• Improved efficacy of Auxiliary Nurse Midwives (ANMs) in the field that can now undertake better antenatal care and other health care services.
• Village Health Sanitation and Nutrition Committees (VHSNC) have used untied grants to increase their involvement in their local communities to address the needs of poor households and children.

Health care contractors

NRHM has provided health care contractors to underserved areas, and has been involved in training to expand the skill set of doctors at strategically located facilities identified by the states. Similarly, due importance is given to capacity building of nursing staff and auxiliary workers such as ANMs. NHM also supports co-location of AYUSH services in Health facilities such as PHCs, CHCs and District Hospitals.

Janani Suraksha Yojana (JSY)

JSY aims to reduce maternal mortality among pregnant women by encouraging them to deliver in government health facilities. Under the scheme cash assistance is provided to eligible pregnant women for giving birth in a government health facility. Large scale demand side financing under the Janani Suraksha Yojana (JSY) has brought poor households to public sector health facilities on a scale never witnessed before.

National Mobile Medical Units (NMMUs)

Many un-served areas have been covered through National Mobile Medical Units (NMMUs).

National Ambulance Services

Free ambulance services are provided in every nook and corner of the country connected with a toll free number and reaches within 30 minutes of the call.

Janani Shishu Suraksha Karyakram (JSSK)

As part of recent initiatives and further moving in the direction of universal healthcare, Janani Shishu Suraksha Karyakarm (JSSK) was introduced to provide free to and fro transport, free drugs, free diagnostic, free blood, free diet to pregnant women who come for delivery in public health institutions and sick infants up to one year.

Rashtriya Bal Swasthya Karyakram (RBSK)

A Child Health Screening and Early Intervention Services has been launched in February 2013 to screen diseases specific to childhood, developmental delays, disabilities, birth defects and deficiencies. The initiative will cover about 27 crore children between 0–18 years of age and also provide free treatment including surgery for health problems diagnosed under this initiative.

Mother and Child Health Wings (MCH Wings)

With a focus to reduce maternal and child mortality, dedicated Mother and Child Health Wings with 100/50/30 bed capacity have been sanctioned in high case load district hospitals and CHCs which would create additional beds for mothers and children.

Free Drugs and Free Diagnostic Service

A new initiative is launched under the National Health Mission to provide Free Drugs Service and Free Diagnostic Service with a motive to lower the out of pocket expenditure on health.

District Hospital and Knowledge Center (DHKC)

As a new initiative District Hospitals are being strengthened to provide Multi-specialty health care including dialysis care, intensive cardiac care, cancer treatment, mental illness, emergency medical and trauma care etc. These hospitals would act as the knowledge support for clinical care in facilities below it through a tele-medicine center located in the district headquarters and also developed as centers for training of paramedics and nurses.

National Iron+ Initiative

The National Iron+ Initiative is an attempt to look at Iron Deficiency Anaemia in which beneficiaries will receive iron and folic acid supplementation irrespective of their Iron/Hb status. This initiative will bring together existing programmes (IFA supplementation for: pregnant and lactating women and; children in the age group of 6–60 months) and introduce new age grou

Indian Railway Passenger reservation Enquiry

Indian Railway Passenger reservation Enquiry

Indian Railways (reporting mark IR) is an Indian state-owned enterprise, owned and operated by the Government of India through the Ministry of Railways. It is one of the world's largest railway networks comprising 115,000 km (71,000 mi) of track over a route of 65,808 km (40,891 mi) and 7,112 stations. In 2014-15, IR carried 8.397 billion passengers annually or more than 23 million passengers a day (roughly half of whom were suburban passengers) and 1058.81 million tons of freight in the year. In 2014–2015 Indian Railways had revenues of ₹1634.50 billion (US$24 billion) which consists of ₹1069.27 billion (US$16 billion) from freight and ₹402.80 billion(US$6.0 billion) from passengers tickets.

Railways were first introduced to India in the year 1853 from Mumbai to Thane. In 1951 the systems were nationalised as one unit, the Indian Railways, becoming one of the largest networks in the world. IR operates both long distance and suburban rail systems on a multi-gauge network of broad, metre and narrow gauges. It also ownslocomotive and coach production facilities at several places in India and are assigned codes identifying their gauge, kind of power and type of operation. Its operations cover twenty nine states and seven union territories and also provides limited international services to Nepal, Bangladesh and Pakistan.

Indian Railways is the world's seventh largest commercial or utility employer, by number of employees, with over 1.376 million employees as of last published figures in 2013 . As for rolling stock, IR holds over 245,267 Freight Wagons, 66,392 Passenger Coaches and 10,499 Locomotives (43 steam, 5,633 diesel and 4,823 electric locomotives). The trains have a 5 digit numbering system and runs 12,617 passenger trains and 7421 freight trains daily. As of 31 March 2013, 21,614 km (13,430 mi) (32.8%) of the total 65,808 km (40,891 mi) route length was electrified. Since 1960, almost all electrified sections on IR use 25,000 Volt AC traction through overhead catenary delivery.

Read more : http://www.indianrail.gov.in/train_Schedule.html

LAND REVENUE ADMINISTRATION

LAND REVENUE ADMINISTRATION

1. Introduction:

1.1 The Revenue Department is the oldest arm of the Governments existing from times immemorial in the Country. The history of mankind is intimately associated with land relationship.

 1.2 From times immemorial, the Land Administration / Revenue Administration centered around collection of taxes/land revenue, which was the main source of revenue to Rulers. The village was the basic unit of administration and has remained so through out the centuries. Land and its people define basic frame work of any civilization. The resources, their ownership and accessibility of land are some of the fundamental constituents of any system which is considered an essential aspect of human societies over the centuries.

2. Evolution of Revenue Administration in the Country:

2.1 A historical analysis of ancient Indian Policy suggests that tax on land played a pivotal part in the evolution and maintenance of the systems of governance. The history of Land Administration dates back to the olden days of kings and kingdoms. From times immemorial, land administration is considered as prime domain of the State. According to classical 3 doctrine, all lands belong to the King / State which can alienate some of it for cultivation and other purposes to individuals.

2.2 Right from the time of Manu, the Land Revenue has been a major source of income of the sovereign. During the Mauryan and Gupta periods, the revenue was collected by the paid officials, which resembles the present day Revenue Administration system. During the Post Mauryan and Gupta periods, the State revenue was collected by donees of Brahmadeya, Devadana, and Agrahara Lands. The donees were feudal intermediaries who passed on a part of the revenue they collected to the King. Later, in place of the above Revenue Collectors, the Jagirdars, Subedars and Inamdars who were intermediaries passed on the revenue to the kings during the rule of Sultanates which extended for more than 300 years. During their rule the source of Revenue was two fold, religious and secular. The former called Zaker was due from the Muslims and Jigya which the non-Muslims had to pay.

 2.3 The process of Revenue Administration was started by Sher Shah Suri (1540-45). It was continued and improved upon under the reign of the Mughal Emperor Akber (1556-1605). Todar Mal - greatest revenue expert who started his career under Sher Shah Suri joined in the service of Akbar, is remembered even to this day for evolving a system of revenue assessment and survey, a system which drew a balance between the demands of the State and needs of the subjects. The Revenue Administration during the regime of Mughals consisted of a heterogeneous class of persons, which included direct officials of the imperial administration, like the provincial governors, amils, or the qanungos, jagirdars (revenue -assignees) and their officials and agents, and representatives of the peasants like the village headmen (muqaddams) and the chaudhris.

 2.4 With the advent of the British in India, the political and economic 4 scenario underwent far reaching changes. The Revenue Administration was systematized scientifically during British rule by introducing “permanent settlement” (by Corn Wallis - 1793) and Ryotwari system by Sir Thomas Munro - 1802). The colonial Government out of its interest to administer the country effectively, did not make any substantial changes in the land - revenue systems but promoted the class of non-cultivating intermediaries. The British inherited the institutional form of agrarian system from the Mughals. The British superimposed a system over the existing pattern in tune with British customs and laws relating to land. During the British times the Revenue Department was the pivot of Administration. The Collector was the virtual monarch at the district, around whom the entire administration revolved.

 2.5 After Independence, by and large, the same institutional structure has been adopted with a few changes for better delivery of services. One of the many areas concentrated upon by the successive Indian Governments has been the “land reforms” and “agrarian reforms”. In that direction the land policy in India has undergone broadly four phases that included viz.,

1. Abolition of intermediaries

2. Tenancy reforms

3. Fixing ceiling on land holdings

4. Assignment of Government lands and Ceiling Surplus lands

The Laws imposing ceiling on Agricultural Holdings have been enacted in all the States. According to available reports, over 54 million acres of Ceiling Surplus land was distributed to 57 Million beneficiaries. ((Source Government of India, Ministry of Rural Development). The protection of tenants and regulation of rent is the first step in the tenancy reforms. As a result of tenancy legislations in 5 India 12 million tenants or share croppers were conferred occupancy rights (Source: Government of India, Ministry of Rural Development Report 2002-03). In more recent decades, focus has been less on Land Reforms and more on Land Development and Administration such as Drought – Prone Area Programme, Desert Development Programme and Watershed Development Programme.
Read more: http://tsipard.gov.in/land_revenue_administration-a_historicaloutlookfinal.pdf

Indian Forest Service

Indian Forest Service (Hindi: भारतीय वन सेवा) (abbreviated as IFS) is one of the Civil Services of India and belongs to the apex All India Services group, with other two All India Services being the Indian Administrative Service (IAS) and the Indian Police Service (IPS).

Indian Forest Service was created in 1966 under the All India Services Act 1951. Previously, the Imperial Forestry Service existed during the British Raj from 1865 to 1935. Officers are recruited via a rigorous competitive examination and then trained for about two years by the Central Government. Their services are placed under various State cadres and joint cadres, even though they have the mandate to serve both under the State and Central Governments.The main mandate of the service is the implementation of the National Forest Policy which aims to ensure environmental stability and maintenance of ecological balance which are vital for sustenance of all life forms, human, animal and plant. IFS officers while in field postings in respective state cadres work for conservation, protection and development of forests and wildlife along with an aim to enhance livelihood opportunities of forest dependent communities of rural and tribal areas.

An IFS officer is largely independent of district administration and exercises administrative, judicial and financial powers in their own domain. All top positions in state forest department are held by IFS officers. Positions like Divisional Forest Officer (DFO), Conservator of Forests (CF) and Principal Chief Conservator of Forests (PCCF) etc. are some examples. The highest ranking IFS official in each state is the Head of Forest Forces (HoFF), a cabinet selection post equal in rank to the Chief Secretary for IAS or State Police Chief for the IPS.

They are also eligible for State and Central deputations as their counterpart IAS and IPS officers. Deputation of IFS officers to the Central Government includes appointments in Central Ministries at the position of Deputy Secretary, Director, Joint Secretary and Additional Secretary etc.; appointments in various Public Sector Units, Institutes and Academies at the position of Chief Vigilance Officers (CVO), Managing Directors, Inspector General, Director General etc.

Read more: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Forest_Service

Ministry of Road Transport and Highways

The Ministry of Road Transport and Highways, a branch of the Government of India, is the apex body for formulation and administration of the rules, regulations and laws relating to road transport, national highways and transport research, in order to increase the mobility and efficiency of the road transport system in India.Road transport is a critical infrastructure for economic development of the country.It influences the pace, structure and pattern of development.In India,roads are used to transport over 60% of the total goods and 85% of the passenger traffic.Hence, development of this sector is of paramount importance for the India and accounts for a significant part in the budget. From May 2014, the Minister for Road Transport and Highways is Nitin Gadkari.
Read more :https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Road_Transport_and_Highways

Ministry of Women and Child Development

The Ministry of Women and Child Development, a branch of the Government of India, is the apex body for formulation and administration of the rules and regulations and laws relating to women and child development in India. The current minister for the Ministry of Women and Child Development is Maneka Gandhi having held the portfolio since May, 2014.

Read more: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Women_and_Child_Development

History of education in the Indian subcontinent

The history of education in the South Asia began with teaching of traditional elements such as Indian religions, Indian mathematics, Indian logic at early Hindu and Buddhist centres of learning such as Taxila (in modern-day Pakistan) and Nalanda (in India) before the common era. Islamic education became ingrained with the establishment of the Islamic empires in the Indian subcontinent in the Middle Ages while the coming of the Europeans later brought western education to colonial India. A series of measures continuing throughout the early half of the 20th century ultimately laid the foundation of education in the Republic of India, education in Pakistan and much of South Asia.
Read more: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_education_in_the_Indian_subcontinent

Economic history of India

The known Economic history of India begins with the Indus Valley civilization. The Indus civilization's economy appears to have depended significantly on trade, which was facilitated by advances in transport. Around 600 BC, the Mahajanapadas minted punch-marked silver coins. The period was marked by intensive trade activity and urban development. By 300 BC, the Maurya Empire united most of the Indian subcontinent. The political unity and military security allowed for a common economic system and enhanced trade and commerce, with increased agricultural productivity.

For the next 1500 years, India produced its classical civilisations such as the Rashtrakutas, Hoysalas and Western Gangas. During this period India is estimated to have had the largest economy of the ancient and medieval world between until 16th century AD, controlling between one third and one fourth of the world's wealth up to the time of Maratha Empire, from when it rapidly declined during European colonization.

According to economic historian Angus Maddison in his book The World Economy: A Millennial Perspective, India was the richest country in the world and had the world's largest economy until the 16th century AD.

India has followed central planning for most of its independent history, which have included extensive public ownership, regulation, red tape, and trade barriers. After the 1991 economic crisis, the central government launched economic liberalisation. India has turned towards a more capitalist system and has emerged as one of the fastest growing large economies of the world.

Read more : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_history_of_India

History of Union Public Service Commission

The Union Public Service Commission (UPSC; Hindi: संघ लोक सेवा आयोग) is India's central agency authorised to conduct the Civil Services Examination, Indian Forest Service examination, Engineering Services Examination, Combined Defence Services Examination, National Defence Academy Examination, Naval Academy Examination, Combined Medical Services Examination, Special Class Railway Apprentice, Indian Economic Service/Indian Statistical Service Examination, Combined Geoscientist and Geologist Examination, and Central Armed Police Forces(Assistant Commandant) Examination.

Read more : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_Public_Service_Commission

Ministry of Health and Family Welfare in India

Ministry of Health and Family Welfare

The Ministry of Health and Family Welfare is an Indian government ministry charged with health policy in India. It is also responsible for all government programs relating to family planning in India. 

The Minister of Health and Family Welfare holds cabinet rank as a member of the Council of Ministers. The current minister is Shri. Jagat Prakash Nadda. The Ministry regularly publishes the Indian Pharmacopoeia since 1955 through Indian Pharmacopoeia Commission (IPC) an autonomous body under the ministry for setting of standards for drugs, pharmaceuticals and healthcare devices and technologies in India.

Read more : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Health_and_Family_Welfare